The Andes Mountains line Argentina's western edge, forming the boundary with Chile. The highest peak, Aconcagua, stands 6960 m (22,834 ft). Gently rolling plains extend eastward from the base of the Andes and descend gradually to sea level. The Pampas, treeless plains that include the most productive agricultural sections of the country, occupy much of this region. Patagonia, south of the Pampas, is dry and desolate. At the southern tip of Argentina lie the islands of Tierra del Fuego.
Argentina has a temperate climate, except for a small tropical area in the northeast and a subtropical region in the north. The higher Andes and Patagonia are cold, while in most coastal areas temperatures are moderated by the ocean. Rainfall is high in the north, and quite low in the south. Argentina's main natural resource has been the agricultural land of the Pampas. Productive offshore deposits of petroleum and natural gas are also important.
Population The population is 34,264,000 (1995 estimate), largely urban and of European origin. Spanish is the official language, Roman Catholicism the predominant religion.
Education and Culture Education is free and compulsory. Argentina has rich literary and musical traditions. The tango, a widely popular ballroom dance, originated here.
Economy Argentina ranks among world leaders in the production of grain and cattle. Wheat is the most important crop, and wool is a major export. Coal and petroleum production, once relatively small-scale, has increased significantly in recent years. The unit of currency is the nuevo peso argentino (1 peso equals U.S.$1; 1996).
Government Executive power is held by a president elected to no more than two consecutive four-year terms. The National Congress consists of the 257-member House of Deputies and the 72-member Senate. Deputies are elected directly to four-year terms, and each of the country's 23 provinces elects three senators to six-year terms. In each province, the largest nongoverning party chooses one of the three senators.
Back to ListThe principal physical feature of Bolivia is the Andes mountain range, which extends generally north to south across the western part of the country. The Andes form two ranges in Bolivia: the western range (Cordillera Occidental), which runs along the Chilean border; and the eastern range (Cordillera Oriental), the main range, which crosses the west central part of Bolivia.
Bolivia is divided into three distinct regions. The first is the Altiplano plateau, which lies between the Cordillera Occidental and the Cordillera Oriental. In the northern part of the Altiplano is Lake Titicaca, the highest large, navigable lake in the world. The second region includes the forested and well-watered Yungas valleys on the eastern mountain slopes. The third region includes the llanos, or the Amazon-Chaco lowlands, which stretch east and northeast from the mountains and contain large grassy tracts and, along the rivers, dense tropical forests. Much of this region becomes swampland during the wet season, but areas above the flood line are rich grazing lands. In the southeast, separated from the Amazonian plains by the Chiquitos highlands, are the dry, semitropical plains of the Chaco.
Bolivia has a wide range of climates. As a result, plant and animal species of nearly every climatic zone are found. Deposits of metallic ores are large and varied, including tin, lead, silver, and copper.
Population The population of Bolivia (1995 estimate) is about 8,074,000. About 55 percent of the people are Native American, and about 30 percent are mestizo, of mixed blood. The remaining inhabitants are white, mainly of Spanish descent. The official languages are Spanish and two Native South American languages, Quechua and Aymara. Most of the people are Roman Catholics. Primary education is free and compulsory for children from ages 6 through 14, but the public schools do not meet the needs of Bolivia, which has an illiteracy rate of almost 25 percent.
Back to ListThe main physical features of Brazil are the Brazilian plateau, a vast highland region in the southeast; the Amazon River Basin of impenetrable forested lowlands, swamps, and floodplains; and the Guiana Highlands in the extreme northwest. Much of the coast is fringed by a narrow plain. The Amazon River is navigable by oceangoing ships for about 3700 km (2300 mi). Brazil's climate ranges from wet and tropical at the mouth of the Amazon to much drier and cooler in the southeast. Winter temperatures as low as -6° C (22° F) are occasionally recorded in the extreme south.
The plant life of Brazil is highly diversified, particularly in the Amazon Basin. Brazilian forests provide immense timber reserves and are a potential source for pharmaceutical products. Vegetation is less dense in the highlands, giving way to cacti and other spiny plants in dry sections of the plateau region; coniferous trees thrive in temperate areas.
Population The population of Brazil is 161,382,000 (1995 estimate), about four-fifths of which lives in urban areas. People of European descent, primarily Portuguese, account for 54 percent of the population; mulattoes and mestizos, with African-European and European-Native American ancestry, total 39 percent. People of African-Native American descent, Asian descent, and pure Native American descent form much smaller parts of the population.
Most Brazilians are Roman Catholics, with some combining worship of African deities with Christian religious practices. Native Americans generally follow traditional religions. Portuguese is the official language of Brazil. Education is free and compulsory, and about four-fifths of the people can read. The government provides support for higher education. Brazil is known for its music, which fuses African and Portuguese elements. The samba and the bossa nova originated in Brazil. The country also has a rich literature.
Economy Once a predominantly agricultural nation, Brazil has had a diversified modern economy since the 1980s. However, chronic inflation and a massive foreign debt pose severe economic problems. Important agricultural exports include coffee, oranges for making concentrate, soybeans, and cocoa. Sugarcane grown for alcohol fuel production is also important, as is beef. Recent decades have seen significant lumbering.
Mineral resources in Brazil are extensive, with gold and coal under heavy production; the country is the world's second-largest producer of iron ore. Other important mineral products include tin, quartz crystal, and industrial-grade diamonds. Brazil produces significant amounts of petroleum but imports more than half of its oil. To provide funds for development, the oil industry was partially privatized in 1995.
Major manufactured products include machinery and transportation equipment, processed foods, textiles and clothing, and chemicals. Most electricity is generated by hydroelectric facilities. The basic unit of currency is the real (.99 reals equal U.S.$1; 1996).
Government Under the 1988 constitution, Brazil's chief executive is the president, who is elected for a nonrenewable four-year term. The Brazilian National Congress consists of an 81-member Senate serving eight-year terms and a 513-member Chamber of Deputies serving four-year terms. The twenty-six states have their own local governments.
In reaction to previous repressive legislation, the constitution outlaws torture, provides for popular votes on major issues, forbids most censorship, and guarantees rights to privacy and to strike. The Brazilian military, however, retains the right to intervene in politics to preserve law and order.
Back to ListThe dominant physical feature of Chile, the Andes Mountains, extend the length of the country on the east. To the west are low coastal mountains, and between these ranges lies a northern plateau area occupied by the Atacama Desert. The fertile Central Valley is the country's agricultural heartland. Numerous islands dot the southern coast.
Chile has a diversity of climates, ranging from a desert climate in the north, to a Mediterranean-like climate in the central region, to a damp climate in the south. Plant life varies with climatic zone. The northern desert has few varieties of vegetation, but the Central Valley supports cacti, shrubs, grasses, and pine trees. Rain forests and grasses grow in the south. Mammals include llamas, alpacas, guanacos, pumas, Andean wolves, and chinchillas.
Population Chile's population is 14,237,000 (1995 estimate). Mestizos, the descendants of early Spanish settlers and the Native Americans, constitute more than 92 percent of the population. Less than 2 percent are of unmixed European stock, and only 6 percent are pure Native American. About 86 percent of the people live in urban centers. Spanish is the official language and is spoken by virtually the entire population. The Roman Catholic church is a major force in Chilean society, with Catholics making up nearly four-fifths of the population. Most of the remaining population are Pentecostal Protestants.
Education and Cultural Activity Education in Chile is free and compulsory between the ages of 6 and 14 and is administered by the national government. The literacy rate is about 93 percent, among the highest in Latin America. The University of Chile, located in Santiago, is the most important university. Chile has both a cosmopolitan urban culture and a traditional peasant culture, whose influences are strongest in music and dance. Chile has produced two Nobel Prize winners in literature, poets Gabriela Mistral and Pablo Neruda.
Government The government of Chile was based on the constitution of 1925 until 1973, when military rulers suspended most provisions guaranteeing democracy and due process. A new constitution, enacted in 1981, was not fully implemented until 1989. It gives executive power to a popularly elected president and legislative power to the National Congress, which consists of the 120-member Chamber of Deputies and the 46-member Senate.
Economy Chile has one of South America's strongest economies. About 18 percent of its labor force works in agriculture, forestry, and fishing. Leading crops include grapes, apples, wheat, sugar beets, and maize. The country is the southern hemisphere's largest exporter of fruits and has an important wine-making industry. The raising of sheep is a major livestock industry. Forest products such as lumber, pulp, and paper are exported, and major catches of the large fishing industry include mackerel, anchovy, and herring.
Chile ranks as the world's leading producer of copper, which accounts for nearly 40 percent of its exports. Petroleum and natural gas are extracted, along with iron ore, nitrates, iodine, sulfur, coal, and manganese. Manufacturing employs about 17 percent of all workers. Manufactures include steel, cement, textiles, glass, chemicals, and sugar. Copper and oil are also refined. Imports include machinery and transportation equipment, electric equipment, and chemicals. The monetary unit of Chile is the peso (407 pesos equal U.S.$1; 1996).
Back to ListThe distinguishing topographical feature of Colombia is the Andes mountain chain, extending north-south across almost the entire length of the country. Colombia's varied topography also includes torrid lowlands; selvas (rain forests); and vast plains, or llanos. The principal river, the Magdalena, flows north across practically the entire country. Wildlife includes the larger South American mammals— such as jaguars, pumas, and tapirs— and monkeys, red deer, snakes, and birds.
Colombia lies almost entirely in the Torrid Zone, between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. The climate, however, varies with the elevation, with cooler temperatures at higher altitudes. The mineral resources of the country are extensive, including emeralds, petroleum and natural gas, coal, and gold.
Population About 58 percent of the people who make up Colombia's diverse population are mestizo (of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry), about 20 percent are of unmixed European ancestry, and about 14 percent are mulatto (of mixed black and white ancestry). About 95 percent of the population (1995 estimate, 36,200,000) are Roman Catholics. The official language is Spanish, although the 1991 constitution recognizes the languages of ethnic groups.
Elementary education is free and compulsory for five years, and most public schools are controlled by the Roman Catholic church. There are several universities. The National Library (1777) and the leading museums are in Bogotá.
For Colombian literature and music, see Latin American Literature; Latin American Music; Latin American Art and Architecture; Pre-Columbian Art and Architecture.
Economy Most Colombian workers are engaged in agriculture, forestry, fishing, industry, and mining. Colombia is primarily an agrarian nation, but it has experienced rapid industrial growth in recent decades. For example, although Colombia is second only to Brazil in the annual volume of coffee produced, the crop was bypassed by petroleum in the mid-1990s as the country's largest source of foreign income.
New oil reserves discovered east of Bogotá are expected to provide Colombia with energy self-sufficiency into the 21st century. The country is also one of the leading exporters of coal, with the world's largest single open-pit mine, and is the top gold producer of South America. In addition, Colombia has the largest platinum deposits in the world and supplies about one-half of the world's emeralds.
The basic unit of currency is the Colombian peso (1030 pesos equal U.S.$1; 1996). Not included in the country's official economic statistics is the impact of the illegal cocaine trade, reportedly with annual profits worth $300 million in the early 1990s.
Government Colombia's 1991 constitution provides for a centralized republican form of government. National executive power is held by a popularly elected president. The president appoints a cabinet subject to the approval of the Congress, the legislative body composed of a House of Representatives and a Senate. For local government, the country is divided into 32 departments and one capital district. Departmental governors are directly elected.
Colombia has a relatively free and open political system in which a number of parties participate. The two major parties have traditionally been the Conservative Party (now known as the Colombian Social Conservative Party) and the Liberal Party.
Back to ListEcuador is divided into four geographic regions: the coastal plain, the mountainous central highlands, the eastern jungle, and the Galapagos Islands. Cotopaxi (5897 m/19,347 ft) is one of the highest active volcanoes in the world. Although Ecuador lies on the equator, the country has a wide range of climates because of its various elevations.
Forests cover more than 50 percent of the country. The Galapagos Islands, with many unique species, serve as a wildlife sanctuary. The primary mineral resource of Ecuador is petroleum.
Population The population of Ecuador is 11,802,000 (1995 estimate), mostly composed of Native Americans and mestizos, people of mixed Native American and European ancestry. The official and most widely used language in Ecuador is Spanish. Many rural Native Americans speak Quechua, the original language of the Inca people. Roman Catholicism is the faith of more than 90 percent of the population. Education in Ecuador is free and compulsory. About 85 percent of the people can read. Many rural areas, however, do not have schools.
Economy Industrial production, especially of petroleum, accounts for nearly 35 percent of Ecuador's economic output. Agriculture, formerly the basis of the Ecuadorian economy, accounts for only 14 percent. Bananas are the primary crop. Ecuador is one of the chief sources of balsa wood, and the waters surrounding the Galapagos Islands are one of the richest tuna fisheries in the world. The unit of currency is the sucre (3045 sucres equal U.S.$1; 1996).
Government Under Ecuador's 1979 constitution, executive power is held by an elected president, who is assisted by a cabinet and appoints local governors. Legislative power is held by the Chamber of Representatives, which has 71 members elected to four-year terms.
Back to ListThe Paraguay River divides the country into sharply contrasting regions. In the west is the Gran Chaco, covered by grassy plains, swamps, and scrub forest; in the east is densely forested Paraguay proper, consisting mainly of the southern extension of the Paraná plateau. The climate of Paraguay is subtropical. The primary resources are fertile soil, forests, and rivers.
Population The population (1995 estimate) is 5,358,000. Paraguay has perhaps the most racially homogenous population in South America. About 95 percent of its inhabitants are mestizos (people of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry). About half the people live in rural areas. Spanish is the official language; however, Guaraní is commonly spoken by about 90 percent of the people. Roman Catholicism, the official religion, is the faith of about 95 percent of all Paraguayans.
Economy Agriculture dominates the economy. Leading crops include cassava, sugarcane, and corn. Forest products, especially tannin and petitgrain oil, are also important. The basic unit of currency is the guaraní (1995 guaranís equal U.S.$1; 1995).
Government Paraguay is governed under a 1992 constitution that gives much power to the president, who is the head of state and chief executive, and who is elected to a single five-year term. A vice president is elected under the same conditions. The president is assisted by a council of ministers and is advised by a council of state. Paraguay's bicameral national legislature is made up of a 45-member Senate and an 80-member Chamber of Deputies.
Back to ListPeru is divided into three topographical regions: the arid coastal plain, the sierra, and the montaña. The coastal plain runs the length of the country and contains most of the cities and industries. It supports desert vegetation and limited animal species. Parallel to the plain, at an average height of about 3660 m (about 12,000 ft), the sierra covers 30 percent of the country and contains several ranges of the Andes Mountains. The highest peak is Huascarán (6768 m/22,205 ft). Cactus, scrub, and grasses grow in the rugged sierra, which supports llama, alpaca, vicuña, and a variety of birds and freshwater fish. In the northeast, the forested sierra slopes downward toward the flat tropical jungle of the Amazon Basin. This area, including the slopes, is known as the montaña. The montaña constitutes some 60 percent of the land. It remains largely unexplored and contains a profusion of jungle plants and animals. The largest river in Peru is the Amazon River. The largest lake is Lake Titicaca.
Population Peru has a population (1995 estimate) of 24,087,000, about 45 percent of whom are Native Americans. About 37 percent are of mixed white and Native American background, and about 15 percent are of unmixed white descent. Peru is overwhelmingly Roman Catholic, and about three-quarters of the population lives in urban areas. Official languages are Spanish, spoken by about 70 percent of the people, and the Native American Quechua language. About 85 percent of adults are literate. Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 15.
Peru's Native American heritage is one of the richest in South America, preserved throughout Peruvian culture and society. While people live in a modern Western style along the coast and in highland cities, in the remainder of the highlands and the eastern jungles Native Americans retain lifestyles similar to those of their ancestors.
Economy Peru's economy is primarily agricultural, with about 33 percent of Peru's working population engaged in farming, many on small subsistence farms. The chief agricultural products are sugarcane, potatoes, and rice. Mahogany, rubber, and medicinal plants grow in the forests that cover 55 percent of Peru. The fishing and mining industries are also important to Peru. More than three-fifths of the fishing catch is anchovies, used for making fish meal, a product in which Peru leads the world. Mining operations extract large quantities of metals, petroleum, and natural gas. Despite efforts to curb the illegal trade of narcotics, Peru remains the world's leading grower of coca, from which the drug cocaine is refined. The Peruvian currency is the nuevo sol (2.36 nuevo sols equal U.S.$1; 1996).
Mountains make surface transport difficult. Of the 69,900 km (about 43,400 mi) of roads, only 11 percent are paved. One rail line, the Central Railroad, ascends to about 4815 m (about 15,800 ft) above sea level, the highest point reached by any standard-gauge line in the world. The most notable inland waterway is the Amazon River, which is navigable by ship from the Atlantic Ocean to the Peruvian town of Iquitos.
Government Peru is governed under a 1993 constitution. Executive power is vested in a president elected by universal suffrage to a five-year term. The single-chamber Congreso serves as Peru's legislature. It comprises 120 members elected to five-year terms.
Back to ListVenezuela's four distinct geographic regions are the Venezuelan highlands in the northwest and north; the Maracaibo lowlands near the northwestern coast; the Llanos, a region of tropical grassland in the north central region; and the Guiana Highlands in the southeast and south. Venezuela's chief river is the Orinoco.
Venezuela's climate is tropical on the Llanos and along the coast, and temperate in the mountainous regions. The country is rich in mineral resources, notably petroleum, natural gas, bauxite, gold, iron ore, copper, zinc, lead, and diamonds. Forests cover nearly 40 percent of Venezuela. Plant life common to the Temperate Zone (the region north of the tropic of Cancer) thrives above about 900 m (about 3000 ft). Mangrove swamps cover much of the Orinoco River delta. Tropical animals and birds abound.
Population Venezuela's population (1995 estimate) is about 21,483,000. The majority of the people are mestizos (people of mixed European and Native American ancestry). Overwhelmingly urban, about 80 percent of the population lives in the northern highlands or coastal regions. Spanish is the official language. The principal religion is Roman Catholicism. Education in Venezuela is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 5 and 15. In cultural life, the distinct Venezuelan contribution to folk legend is the llanero, or South American cowboy, with whom the national dance and popular music is associated. See also Latin American Art and Architecture; Latin American Literature; Latin American Music.
Economy and Government Venezuela's economy is built upon the nation's rich petroleum and mineral resources, but the government has focused on expanding and diversifying agricultural production. Principal crops include sugarcane, fruits, grains, and coffee. Livestock raising includes cattle, hogs, goats, sheep, and poultry. The lumbering industry is underdeveloped largely because of forest inaccessibility. Venezuela's rich fishery resources include important commercial shrimp, tuna, and sardine catches; pearl fisheries are also important. Venezuela exploits most of its mineral resources; crude and refined oil are the main source of government revenue. The leading Venezuelan manufactures include petroleum products, steel, aluminum, fertilizer, cement, tires, motor vehicles, processed food, beverages, clothing, and wood items. The basic unit of currency is the bolivar (455 bolivars equal U.S.$1; 1996).
The chief executive is a president, and Venezuela's legislature is made up of a 49-member Senate and 201-member Chamber of Deputies. All serve five-year terms.
Back to ListThe terrain in the south consists of grassy, rolling plains, except for tidal marshland along the Atlantic coast. In the north and northwest is a low plateau, the Cuchilla de Haedo. The eastern portion of the country is dominated by the Cuchilla Grande; it rises to 501 m (1644 ft) at Mirador Nacional.
Uruguay has a temperate climate; frost is virtually unknown in most parts of the country. The country's principal resources are agricultural, including much fertile soil. The predominant vegetation is tall prairie grass.
Population The people of Uruguay are predominantly of European origin, many of them foreign-born, and come chiefly from Spain and Italy. Only about 5 to 10 percent are mestizos, persons of mixed European and Native American ancestry. None of the original Native American population remains.
The population (1995 estimate, 3,186,000) is largely urban and concentrated near the coast. About 60 percent of the people belong to the Roman Catholic church. Spanish is the official language. Uruguay has one of the lowest rates of illiteracy (about 4 percent) in Latin America.
Economy Agriculture, specifically stock raising, is of primary importance to Uruguay's economy, although manufacturing is increasing in significance. Foreign trade also plays a strong role. Tourism, especially from Argentina, is an increasingly important source of foreign currency. The unit of currency is the peso uruguayos (4.4 peso uruguayos equal U.S.$1; 1993).
Government Uruguay's executive is a president elected to a five-year term. The legislature consists of a 99-member Chamber of Deputies and a 30-member Senate. The country is noted for its advanced social-welfare programs.
Back to ListBelize has swampy lowlands in the north, low mountains in the south, and a Caribbean Sea coast rich with beaches, islands, and reefs. The climate is subtropical. Tropical hardwood trees such as mahogany, cedar, and rosewood are important resources.
The population of Belize is 203,957 (1993 estimate). Most of the people are of mixed racial descent, including black African, Native American, and European ancestry. English is the official language; the major religion is Roman Catholicism. Education is compulsory between the ages of 6 and 14.
Government and Economy The British sovereign is the head of state and is represented by a governor-general, who has little actual power. Executive power is exercised by the prime minister and cabinet. The National Assembly consists of an 8-member Senate and a 28-member House of Representatives.
Agriculture is the main economic activity. Exports include sugar, citrus, and bananas; farmers grow rice, beans, and corn as subsistence crops. Manufactures include processed food, wood products, and clothing. The unit of currency is the Belize dollar (2 Belize dollars equal U.S.$1; 1990).
Back to ListBetween Costa Rica's Caribbean and Pacific coasts are rugged highlands, about 915 to 1830 m (about 3000 to 6000 ft) above sea level. A central plateau, the Meseta Central, lies between the principal mountain ranges and contains the bulk of the population. The climate ranges from tropical along the coast to temperate in the highlands. Annual precipitation averages about 2540 mm (about 100 in). Costa Rica's resources include fertile agricultural soils, abundant forests, and extensive fisheries.
Population The population of Costa Rica (1995 estimate) is about 3,424,000. Most of the people are of mixed Spanish and Native American descent. Spanish is the official language; Roman Catholicism is the state religion. The literacy rate is about 93 percent. The average life expectancy in Costa Rica is 78 years, the highest in the western hemisphere. The country has a national health plan and compulsory social security.
Economy Costa Rica's economy is based on agriculture, which employs about 24 percent of the labor force, although manufacturing is expanding. The primary exports include coffee, bananas, beef, textiles, and sugar. The unit of currency is the colón (150.67 colones equal U.S.$1; 1993).
Government Under the provisions of the 1949 constitution, executive power is held by the president, who is elected to a four-year term. The single-chamber Legislative Assembly has 57 deputies, also elected to four-year terms. Costa Rica has no armed forces.
Back to ListThe Dominican Republic is a fertile, well-watered, mountainous country. Pico Duarte (3175 m/10,417 ft) is the highest peak in the West Indies. Prevailing easterly winds moderate the semitropical climate. The wet season is from June to November, and hurricanes occur occasionally. The country's main resources are agricultural. It also has valuable deposits of nickel, gold, and silver.
Population The population of the Dominican Republic is 7,915,000 (1995 estimate), mostly of mixed Spanish and African descent. Spanish is the official language. The great majority of the people are Roman Catholics. Almost two-thirds live in urban areas.
Economy The economy of the Dominican Republic is predominantly agricultural; nearly half of the workforce is employed in farming, most in subsistence farming. Products from sugarcane grown on large plantations bring in more than one-third of all export earnings. Mining also contributes to the economy. The unit of currency is the peso (13.76 pesos equal U.S.$1; 1995).
Government Under the constitution of 1966, executive power in the Dominican Republic is held by a president elected to a four-year term. The congress is composed of the 30-member Senate and the 120-member Chamber of Deputies, all elected to four-year terms. Governors of the country's provinces are appointed by the president.
Back to ListEl Salvador consists of a central plateau that lies between two volcanic mountain ranges. The highest point is the Santa Ana volcano, 2385 m (7825 ft) above sea level. Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are common. The country lies within the tropics; the climate, however, is moderated in many regions by high elevation. The country's natural resources are primarily agricultural.
Population More than 90 percent of El Salvador's population (1995 estimate, 5,768,000) is mestizo, that is, of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry. Spanish is the official language; the principal religion is Roman Catholicism. Schooling is free and compulsory in the elementary grades.
El Salvador is one of the poorest countries in the western hemisphere, with low per capita income, chronic inflation, and high unemployment. The nation's economy depends heavily on coffee. Despite several attempts at land reform, 1 percent of the landowners control more than 40 percent of the arable land. The colón is the basic monetary unit (8.7 colones equal U.S.$1; 1995).
Government The 1983 constitution established an elective presidency, with a civilian chief executive popularly elected to a five-year term. It also established an 84-member legislature. For local government the country is divided into 14 departments, each with an appointed governor.
Back to ListHonduras is a plateau crossed by mountain ranges, with about 640 km (about 400 mi) of Caribbean Sea coastline and about 64 km (about 40 mi) of Pacific Ocean coastline. Its tropical climate is tempered by the interior mountain elevations, where the average annual temperature is about 21.1° C (70° F). Coastal regions are warmer, with annual temperatures averaging 26.7° C (80° F).
Population The population (1995 estimate) is 5,968,000. Most of the people live in rural areas, and about 90 percent are mestizos (people of mixed Spanish and Native American ancestry); minorities are Native Americans, blacks, and whites. Most Hondurans speak Spanish, which is the official language, but English and Native American languages are also spoken. Education is free and compulsory for children from age 7 through 12.
Economy Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy. Leading cash crops include coffee, bananas, and plantains, and the principal food crops are corn, dry beans, and rice. Fishing is also important, and manufacturing has grown significantly in the past few decades. The Honduran unit of currency is the lempira (6.91 lempiras equal U.S.$1; 1993).
Government Executive power is held by a president, elected to a four-year term. The president appoints a cabinet that assists in governing. Legislative power is held by the elected, 128-member Congress.
Back to ListJamaica is mostly mountainous. The island is subject to severe earthquakes and to seasonal hurricanes. The climate is tropical in the coastal region, cooler in the mountains. More than 200 species of flowering plants are found in Jamaica, and there is highly diverse bird life. The main natural resource is bauxite, an ore of aluminum.
Population The population of Jamaica is 2,514,000 (1995 estimate), primarily of African or mixed African and European origin. English is the official language. Jamaica has a Christian majority and also Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, Pocomanian, and Rastafarian communities.
Economy More than 20 percent of Jamaican workers are engaged in agriculture. The chief crop is sugarcane, and Jamaica grows nearly the entire world supply of allspice. Mining some of the richest deposits in the world, the bauxite and enriched bauxite industries account for about 60 percent of the country's total annual exports.
About 1 million people visit Jamaica each year, spending about $600 million there, a sum vital to the country's economy. The unit of currency is the dollar (33.20 dollars equal U.S.$1; 1994).
Government Jamaica's parliamentary system of government is patterned after that of Great Britain. The prime minister, assisted by an appointed cabinet, is the head of the government. The British monarch is the head of state, represented by a governor-general.
Legislative authority is held by the Parliament, made up of the House of Representatives and the Senate. Representatives are elected to terms up to five years. Senators are appointed by the governor-general with the advice of parliamentary leaders.
Back to ListMexico is primarily an immense, elevated plateau, flanked by mountain ranges that fall sharply off to narrow, low, flat coastal plains in the west and east. The two major mountain chains are the Sierra Madre Occidental in the west and the Sierra Madre Oriental in the east. They meet in the southeast, forming volcanic mountains containing the highest peaks in Mexico (see Sierra Madre). Mexico’s longest river is the Rio Grande (called the Río Bravo del Norte in Mexico), which extends along the Mexican-U.S. border. Mexico has important ports on both the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean. In general, the climate varies with elevation. On the humid, low coastal plains temperatures range from 16° to 49° C (60° to 120° F). At higher elevations average temperatures range from 15° to 21° C (59° to 70° F). Most of Mexico is relatively dry, although sections of southern Mexico receive much precipitation.
Almost every known mineral is found in Mexico. Petroleum and natural gas reserves are enormous. Covering about 24 percent of the land, forests and woodlands contain many valuable woods. About 13 percent of Mexico is suitable for agriculture. Native plants include cactus, yucca, agave, and mesquite in the arid north. Tropical jungle plants thrive in some warm, humid areas, while arctic vegetation grows at Mexico’s highest elevations. Wildlife includes wolves and coyotes in the north; ocelots, jaguars, peccaries, bears, and pumas in the oak and pine forests on mountain slopes; and seals along the coasts. Turtles, iguanas, rattlesnakes, and lizards are found throughout the country.
Population The population (1995 estimate) is about 93,670,000. It is composed of three main groups: people of mixed European and Native American ancestry, or mestizos, constituting about 60 percent of the population; Native Americans, constituting about 30 percent of the population; and people of European descent (mostly Spanish). About 75 percent of Mexico’s people live in urban areas.
Mexico consists of 31 states and the Distrito Federal (Federal District), which is the seat of the federal government. Roman Catholicism is the faith of about 90 percent of the people. The prevailing and official language is Spanish. Of Native American languages the most widely spoken is Nahuatl, or Aztec. Education is free and compulsory for all children through age 15.
Culture Mexican culture is a complex blend of Native American, Spanish, and American traditions. The country has strong traditions of architecture, painting, writing, sculpture, handcrafts, and performing arts. Folk songs and dances are especially notable, including the corrido, a narrative folk ballad. For more information on literature and art, see Latin American Literature; and Latin American Art and Architecture.
Economy Mexico’s economy reflects a shift from a primary-production economy, based on mining and agriculture, to a semi-industrialized economy. Economic achievements are largely the result of a vigorous private enterprise sector. Mexican agriculture still supplies most of the country’s own basic needs, as well as exports. The chief crops are maize, sugarcane, sorghum, wheat, oranges, coffee, tomatoes, bananas, and potatoes. About 24 percent of Mexico is forested, and the economy produces considerable amounts of forestry products, such as lumber and turpentine. The most important fisheries lie off the coast of Baja California. The most valuable mineral resource is petroleum, which accounts for about 36 percent of export earnings. Also important are silver, gold, copper ore, iron ore, natural gas, and coal. Mexican industries, among the most developed in Latin America, produce motor vehicles and other consumer items for the U.S. market. Other industries include machinery and electronic equipment factories; petroleum refineries; foundries; meat-packing plants; paper mills; cotton mills; tobacco processing plants; and sugar refineries.
Mexico conducts the great bulk of its trade with the United States. Tourism, border trade, foreign investments, and remittances from Mexican workers in the United States are significant sources of foreign exchange revenue. The Mexican unit of currency is the nuevo peso, (7.45 nuevo pesos equal U.S.$1; 1996).
Government National executive power is held by a president elected to a six-year term. The president must be Mexican-born and the child of a native Mexican. Legislative power is held by the bicameral General Congress, which includes a 64-member Senate and a 500-member Federal Chamber of Deputies. The chief executive of each state is a governor, elected to a six-year term. The Partido Revolucionario Institucional (Institutional Revolutionary Party; PRI) is the largest and most important political party in Mexico. Opposition parties include the Partido de Acción Nacional (National Action Party; PAN), a conservative, pro-Catholic group; and the Partido de la Revolución Democrática (Democratic Revolution Party; PRD), a left-wing party.
Back to ListTwo mountain systems, interspersed with valleys, plains, and plateaus, cross the length of Panama. Tropical rain forests cover the Caribbean side of the country and eastern Panama. A relatively sparse growth of deciduous trees and grassy plains characterize the drier Pacific slopes. Panama's tropical climate, with a rainy season extending from April to December, allows more than 2000 varieties of tropical plants to flourish.
Population The population of Panama (1990 estimate) is 2,315,047. About 70 percent of the people are mestizos (of mixed Native American and white ancestry); others are West Indians, whites, or Native Americans. Spanish is the official and traditional language, and 14 percent of the people are native English speakers. Many Panamanians speak both Spanish and English. About 85 percent of the population is Roman Catholic.
Economy The major source of revenue in Panama is associated with the operation of the Panama Canal, which is administered jointly by Panama and the United States. Panama is scheduled to gain full control by the year 2000. Agriculture— including the growing of sugarcane, rice, maize (corn), and coffee— and fishing are also important. Salt is the major mineral product. The basic unit of currency is the balboa (1 balboa equals U.S.$1; fixed rate); U.S. paper money and coinage are also accepted as legal currency, and no exchange control is exercised.
Government Panama is governed under a constitution adopted in 1972 and substantially revised in 1983. The head of state is a president, who, along with two vice presidents, is elected by direct popular vote. The president is assisted by a cabinet. Panama's unicameral legislature is the Legislative Assembly, made up of 67 members directly elected to five-year terms.
The army played an important role in the government in the 1980s, but to ensure that it would no longer hold political influence in Panama, it was disbanded and replaced by the Public Forces in 1990.
Back to ListOne of the larger islands of the West Indies, Puerto Rico has an area of 9104 sq km (3515 sq mi). The Central Mountains extend almost the entire length of the island, and there are northern and southern coastal plains. The island has tropical rain forest and tropical wet and dry climates. The mountain areas receive the most rain, while the southwestern coastal area receives the least.
Several thousand varieties of tropical plants grow in Puerto Rico, including the kapok tree, the poinciana shrub, the breadfruit, and the coconut palm. Iguanas and many small lizards abound, and there are bats. The island has one animal found almost nowhere else in the world— the coquí, a small tree frog. Puerto Rico's mineral deposits include limestone, glass sand, clay, copper, cobalt, chromium, nickel, iron ore, and peat.
Population Puerto Rico's population is 3,522,037 (1990 estimate), with most people living in urban areas. The majority of people are of Hispanic background; Spanish is the official language. About 80 percent of the people are Roman Catholic.
Education and Cultural Activity The commonwealth has more than 50 institutions of higher education; the University of Puerto Rico is the oldest. The Museum of Puerto Rican Art, the Museum of Military and Naval History, and the Museum of Natural History are located in San Juan. Sites such as El Morro and San Cristóbal fortresses preserve Puerto Rico's Spanish heritage. The mild climate and sandy beaches attract vacationers to the commonwealth; swimming, fishing, boating, tennis, and golf are popular.
Government and Politics Puerto Ricans share most rights and obligations of other U.S. citizens but may not vote in U.S. presidential elections. The governor is elected to a four-year term. The legislature is made up of a 27-member senate and a 53-member house of representatives. In the Congress of the United States, Puerto Rico is represented by a nonvoting resident delegate.
Economy Manufacturing is the leading economic activity, with apparel-making the most important industry, followed by the production of electronic goods, processed foods, and chemicals. Government, commerce, and tourism are also important economic activities. Coffee is the most valuable crop, followed by vegetables, sugarcane, bananas, pineapples, tobacco, and rice. Almost all mineral production consists of construction materials, notably cement, sand, gravel, and stone.
Back to ListChina's six major geographic regions encompass a great diversity of landscapes, natural resources, climates, and plant and animal life. The Northwest region consists of the lofty Tien Shan (a mountain system) and two basins: the fertile Junggar Pendi and the Tarim Pendi, which contains the vast Takla Makan, the driest desert in Asia. The Mongolian Steppe in north central China is a plateau desert region that grades eastward into steppe lands. The Northeast region incorporates the fertile Manchurian Plain and the Liaodong Peninsula. North China, between the Mongolian Steppe and the Yangtze River Basin, consists of the Huangtu Plateau, the fertile North China Plain, and the peninsular Shandong Plateau.
South China embraces the valley of the Yangtze River, Asia's longest river, and the regions to the south: the Yunnan Plateau with its steep-walled gorges; eastern Guizhou's scenic limestone pinnacles and pillarlike peaks; the largely deforested and severely eroded Nan Ling hills; the infertile, hilly Xi Jiang Basin; the rugged Southeastern Highlands; and a broad delta plain, sometimes called the Canton delta. In remote southwestern China is the Tibetan Plateau, the world's highest plateau region, dotted with salt lakes and marshes. Mount Everest, the highest peak in the world, rises in the Himalayas on the border of Nepal and Tibet.
The Asian monsoon (prevailing winds) exerts the primary control on China's climate. Summer temperatures are remarkably uniform throughout most of the country, but extreme temperature differences between north and south characterize the winters. Precipitation generally declines with distance from the sea.
China has a wide variety of animal life, including some species that survive only in China. Among these are the paddlefish, the giant panda, and the Chinese water deer (found only in China and Korea). China also possesses an extremely wide array of mineral resources. Among the world's leaders in production of tin, antimony, and tungsten, the country claims to be second only to Saudi Arabia in oil reserves.
Population China has a population (1994 estimate) of 1,190,431,106. Nearly three-quarters of the people are classified as rural. Approximately 92 percent of the people are ethnic, or Han, Chinese, but the minority population of non-Han peoples is significant in that its members have settled over nearly 60 percent of China's area. More than 70 million people belong to 56 national minorities, distinguished from the Han Chinese by language or religion rather than by physical characteristics. The principal minorities are the Thai-related Zhuang; the Hui, or Chinese Muslims; the aboriginal Miao; the Turkic-speaking Uygur; the aboriginal (but largely assimilated) Yi; the Mongols; and the Tibetans.
More than one-fifth of the world's total population lives within China's borders. Government efforts at population control include limiting each Chinese family to having only one child. The national minorities have generally been excluded from the government's birth-control program, in keeping with a policy of allowing the non-Han peoples a maximum of cultural independence.
The Chinese have had a written language for more than 3000 years. Although there are more than a dozen major dialects, the official spoken language of the Chinese is Putongua (standard speech), sometimes known to Westerners as Mandarin. China's minority groups have their own spoken languages, which include Mongolian, Tibetan, Miao, Tai, Uygur, and Kazak. The Mandarin-based dialect is taught in schools, and knowledge of it is requisite throughout China. See Chinese Language.
After it gained control of China in 1949, the Chinese Communist Party officially eliminated organized religion. Previously the dominant religions had been Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. The 1982 constitution allows residents freedom of religious belief and protects legitimate religious activities.
Education and Cultural Activity One of the most ambitious programs of the Communist Party has been the establishment of universal public education for such a large population. Primary and secondary schools now encompass 12 years of education. Because of China's so-called key-point system, under which the most promising students are placed in selected schools, university education remains difficult to attain. As many as two million students compete each year through entrance examinations for 500,000 university openings. Since the mid-1970s the official attitude toward the arts has relaxed, prompting the reappearance of previously banned foreign literature and the rise of modernized popular music. However, the climate for cultural expression remains delicate.
Economy Traditionally the economic mainstay of China, agriculture remains the most important sector of the national economy, supporting the vast majority of the population. In the early 1980s the government restructured the agricultural sector, dismantling the system of communes and production brigades put in place by the early Communist government. Instead, households became responsible for producing a certain amount of crops. Any additional output was available to sell on the open market. The large majority of farmed land is devoted to food crops, primarily rice. In the early 1990s China's annual production of rice was the largest in the world. Other important crops are wheat, tea, and oilseeds, particularly soybeans and peanuts.
The Chinese textile industry is the largest in the world, and the country is the world's leading cotton producer. China maintains a valuable livestock population, and the fishing industry is important. The country has rich mineral resources, especially coal and petroleum. It is the world's largest producer of coal and natural graphite. The unit of currency is the yuan (8.71 yuan equal U.S.$1; 1994).
Government China is a socialist dictatorship of the proletariat, led by the world's largest Communist party, with more than 52 million members (only a small percentage of the total population). The office of president is largely ceremonial. Executive powers rest with the State Council, headed by the premier. Generally, the positions of greatest authority are those of premier and general secretary of the Communist Party, with power depending largely on individual personalities in such positions. In the early 1990s, however, Deng Xiaoping, who did not hold any official post, was the most powerful figure in the Chinese government. The indirectly elected National People's Congress officially holds legislative power, but in practice it has little real power. When it is not in session, a committee elected from its membership acts in its place.
Back to ListIndia may be divided into four main regions. The Himalayas, the highest mountain system in the world, lie along India's northern and eastern margins. South of them is the northern river-plains region, a belt of lowlands watered by the Indus, Ganges, and Brahmaputra rivers. Further south is the Deccan, a plateau occupying most of peninsular India, with low mountain ranges and deep valleys. The final region consists of the Eastern and Western Ghats, mountain ranges that lie on the east and west, respectively, of the Deccan Plateau.
Most of India has a tropical climate. Seasonal variations, resulting from the southwestern and northeastern monsoons, influence temperature, humidity, and precipitation. The seasons are classified as rainy and dry. In addition to extensive cultivable land and valuable stands of timber, India has many mineral deposits. The plant life varies from sparse in the arid areas bordering Pakistan to luxuriant in the southeastern part of the plains region. Arctic plants grow at high elevations, and the lower elevations support subtropical plant life and are densely forested. India has a wide variety of animal life, from many types of large cats such as tigers, to elephants and rhinoceroses, and several species of apes, antelope, and deer.
Population The exact origins of most Indian people are impossible to determine because of the large variety of races and cultures that have been assimilated into the subcontinent. India ranks as the second most populous country in the world, trailing only China, with a population (1995 estimate) of about 931,044,000, about 73 percent of whom live in rural areas. The northern plains region is the most fertile and densely populated area. Hindus are India's largest religious group. More than 1600 languages or dialects are spoken in India, and India's official language is Hindi. Since gaining its independence from Great Britain in 1947, India has sought to develop a modern, comprehensive school system.
Indian culture is primarily Hindu-oriented. Many Hindu institutions, including the rigid caste system, still have wide-ranging effects on Indian society. Sanskrit, the ancient language of Hindu scriptures, was also used for the core of classical Indian literature (see Sanskrit Language;Sanskrit Literature). The bulk of early classical painting and sculpture also belongs to the mainstream of Hindu tradition, while Islam provided renowned architectural traditions. See Indian Art and Architecture.
Economy India supports a mixed economy, most of which is generally in the control of private enterprise. Since 1951 the country has had a generally steady rate of economic growth. Agriculture is a significant sector of the economy. India's leading crop is rice, a staple foodstuff for many Indians, followed by wheat, sugarcane, tea, cotton, jute, cashews, coffee, and spices. The raising of livestock is also important, primarily for use as beasts of burden, or for wool or dairy products.
India ranks among the world leaders in the production of many of its mineral and precious metal resources. Textile production is the leading manufacturing industry of India. Other important sectors of manufacturing include processing of agricultural products and steel products. The rupee is India's basic monetary unit (34.75 rupees equal U.S.$1; 1996).
Government India is a union of 25 states and 7 centrally administered territories. The chief executive and head of state is a president, but actual executive power resides in a council of ministers, or cabinet, headed by a prime minister. The president appoints the prime minister. The cabinet is responsible to a parliament, which is composed of the Rajya Sabha (Council of States) and the Lok Sabha (House of the People).
Back to ListThe major islands of Indonesia are Sumatra, Java, and Timor in the south, and Borneo, Celebes, the Moluccas, and New Guinea in the north. Indonesia shares Borneo with Malaysia and Brunei, and it shares New Guinea with Papua New Guinea. Indonesia's 1975 annexation of Timor has not been recognized by the United Nations (UN). Each of the major northern islands in Indonesia has a central mountain mass, with plains around the coasts. Active volcanoes are found in the country, and earthquakes occur. The climate is generally tropical, with two monsoon seasons— a wet one from November to March and a dry one from June to October. Throughout the year, humidity is high; the average daily temperature ranges from about 23° to 30° C (about 74° to 86° F), varying little from winter to summer.
Indonesia has rich volcanic soil, and forests cover about two-thirds of the land. Tropical rain forest vegetation prevails throughout the country, although hill forests consist of oak and chestnut. Certain types of fauna are peculiar to each island, but all of the islands abound in birds, reptiles, and amphibians. Tin, bauxite, petroleum, natural gas, copper, nickel, manganese, iron ore, and coal are the major mineral resources, and precious metals and gems are also found.
Population
The indigenous people of Indonesia are mostly of mixed Malaysian origin. Other groups include related Malay peoples, Chinese, other Asian peoples, and Dutch people. The fourth most populous country in the world, Indonesia has a population of 201,477,000 (1995 estimate), largely concentrated on Java.
Indonesia is the largest Islamic community in the world. Freedom of religion is guaranteed, and other religions practiced include Christianity, Buddhism, and Hinduism. About 300 languages and dialects are spoken, but Bahasa Indonesia is the official language. Education is compulsory for at least nine years of school.
Economy Most Indonesians work in subsistence agriculture, fishing, and forestry, although Indonesia is an emerging industrial country. About 11 percent of the country is under cultivation, and about 54 percent of workers engage in agriculture. Small farms contribute significantly to the national rubber and tobacco crops. Plantations produce rubber, tobacco, sugar, palm oil, coffee, tea, and cacao. Other important crops include rice, cassava, maize, and fruit.
Almost all forestland is state owned, and the timber harvest is predominantly made up of hardwoods. Teak, ebony, bamboo, and rattan are also produced, and Indonesia is the world's leading exporter of plywood. Seafood is vital to the Indonesian diet. The catch includes shrimp and prawn, scad, carp, Indian mackerel, goldstripe sardinella, milkfish, anchovy, and skipjack tuna.
Indonesia ranks among the world leaders in production of petroleum and tin. Most manufacturing enterprises are devoted to petroleum refining, followed by textiles, food processing, wood products, tobacco, and chemicals. The rupiah is the official monetary unit (2227 rupiah equal U.S.$1; 1995).
Government The chief executive of Indonesia is a president, elected to a five-year term by a national body called the People's Consultative Assembly, which includes the country's parliament. The president, who may serve any number of terms, has wide power, although legislative power rests with the parliament, a 500-member House of Representatives. This council joins with 500 additional representatives to form the People's Consultative Assembly, which in addition to its electoral responsibilities determines the broad lines of state and government policy. Indonesia's 24 provinces, two regions, and capital city district are each administered by a governor.
Back to ListThe peninsular portion of Malaysia has mountain ranges in the north, flanked by wide plains along either coast. East Malaysia consists of an extensive coastline with some lowlands and several mountain ranges. Malaysia is generally hot and humid throughout the year and receives heavy annual rainfall. The country contains abundant forest, agricultural, and mineral resources.
Population Ethnic Malays and other indigenous peoples make up 62 percent of Malaysia's population (see Malayan Peoples). Chinese and East Indians are the largest minority groups. Malaysia's population (1991 census) of 17,566,982 is concentrated in West Malaysia. The country is divided into the federal territories of Kuala Lumpur and Lubuan, and 13 states: Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Melaka, Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Perak, Perlis, Pinang, Selangor, Terengganu, Sabah, and Sarawak. Bahasa Malaysia, based on Malay, is the official language. Islam is the religion of more than half the population. In Malaysia education is free from age 6 through 18.
Economy The economy of Malaysia was once based principally on the production of raw materials such as petroleum, rubber, and tin, but manufacturing and tourism have grown in importance. Nearly 15 percent of Malaysia is cultivated. The principal subsistence crop is rice, and Malaysia is the world's leading producer of palm oil. More than half the land is forested, and the nation is the world's leading supplier of tropical hardwoods. Production of petroleum and natural gas and the refining of crude oil are also major industries. Malaysia is among the world's leading suppliers of tin. The Malaysian unit of currency is the ringgit or Malaysian dollar (2.49 ringgits equal U.S.$1; 1996).
Government Malaysia has a federal form of government. The head of state is the yang dipertuan agong (supreme head of the federation), who is selected by and from among the nine hereditary rulers of the Malay states. Executive power is exercised by the prime minister, appointed by the head of state. Parliament includes a house of representatives (Dewan Rakyat) and a senate (Dewan Negara). Representatives are popularly elected, while some senators are elected by state legislatures, some are chosen from the two federal territories, and some are appointed by the head of state. Legislative power is divided between the federal and state governments.
Back to ListPakistan is a mostly dry region characterized by great extremes of altitude and temperature. The Indus River runs between the two main landforms of the country: the Indus Plain, along the eastern side of the river, and the Baluchistan Highlands, which lie to the west. Other landforms are a narrow coastal plain, bordering the Arabian Sea; the Khârân Basin, west of the Baluchistan Highlands; and the Thar Desert, straddling the border with India.
The climate of Pakistan varies widely. On the Indus Plain, temperatures range between about 32° and 49° C (about 90° and 120° F) in summer and average about 13° C (about 55° F) in winter. At higher elevations, temperatures fall below freezing during winter.
Pakistan's resources are primarily agricultural. The country's mineral resources include salt, chromite, coal, gypsum, limestone, manganese, sulfur, clay, graphite, copper, petroleum, and natural gas. Vegetation varies with elevation. Alpine flora grows on the higher slopes, and forests are found at lower elevations. Animal life abounds, including deer, boar, bear, crocodile, and waterfowl.
Population Pakistan's population (1995 estimate) of 134,974,000 is ethnically varied, including groups from Dravidian, Indo-Aryan, Greek, Scythian, Hun, Arab, Mongol, Persian, and Afghan backgrounds. Only about 35 percent of the people live in urban areas. Islam is the faith of about 97 percent of the people of Pakistan, and the country is constitutionally defined as an Islamic nation. However, freedom of religion is guaranteed, and Hinduism and Christianity form the leading minority religions. The official language is Urdu, but Punjabi is spoken widely.
Economy Despite a growing economy, Pakistan's high rate of population increase and internal civil strife help keep many of the people poor and heavily dependent on the agricultural sector for employment. Agricultural activities engage about half of the workforce. Principal crops include sugarcane, rice, cotton lint, and corn. Cotton is also important, as textile yarn and fabrics produce more than one-half of export earnings. Livestock include cattle, water buffalo, sheep, goats, and chickens.
About 4 percent of Pakistan is forested, and most of the wood harvested is used as fuel. Pakistan's fishing resources, although underdeveloped, are extensive. Types of fish caught include sardine, shark, and anchovy; shrimp are also important to the seafood industry. Pakistan's mineral resources are important to the economy. Its manufacturing capacity is small, but expanding. The basic monetary unit is the Pakistani rupee (34.37 rupees equal U.S.$1; 1996).
Government Pakistan's head of state is an elected president. The chief executive official is a prime minister, who is responsible to the legislature. Legislative power is vested in the bicameral Federal Legislature, made up of a 217-member National Assembly and an 87-member Senate. The highest court in Pakistan is the Supreme Court, while a federal Sharia court administers Islamic law, which is the supreme law of the land. The dominant political party after the elections of 1993 was the Pakistan People's Party (PPP), and the Pakistan Muslim League was the main opposition group.
Back to ListThe Philippine Islands form the northernmost group of the Malay Archipelago. The Philippines are the summits of submerged volcanoes, about 20 of which are active. Earthquakes are fairly common. Mountain peaks dominate the smaller islands. On larger islands such as Luzon and Mindanao, valleys and open plains with large rivers run between mountain ranges. The Philippines have a tropical climate with plentiful rain. During the rainy season, from May to November, typhoons occasionally cause great damage. Rich mineral deposits include gold, copper, and iron. About one-third of the land is covered by forests containing banyan, palm, and rubber trees. Bamboo, cinnamon, clove, and pepper plants grow wild. Manila hemp plants, also called abaca, yield fiber for textiles and cord.
Population The population of the Philippines is 60,703,206 (1990). Mostly descended from Malay invaders, Filipinos are divided according to language and religion. Larger groups include the Visayans, the Tagalogs, and the Ilocanos. The official language is Filipino, but English is commonly used. Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion. Education is free and compulsory.
Economy Although soil quality is poor, agriculture employs more than two-fifths of workers. Subsistence crops are rice, corn, cassava, and sweet potatoes. Copra, sugarcane, and tobacco are the principal commercial crops. Lumbering, marine fishing, and mining are important industries; manufacturing has expanded. The unit of currency is the peso (24.29 pesos equal U.S.$1; 1992).
Government Under the 1987 constitution, the chief executive is a president elected to a single six-year term. The elected legislature consists of a senate of 24 members, serving six-year terms, and a house of representatives with a maximum of 250 members, serving three-year terms.
Back to ListPopulation The ethnically diverse population (1992 estimate, 2,818,200) consists principally of Chinese (about 78 percent), Malays (14 percent), and Indians (7 percent). English, Mandarin Chinese, Malay, and Tamil are the official languages.
Economy Singapore has one of the highest standards of living in Asia. Agriculture is relatively unimportant, but industry produces goods such as electronic items, plastics, and processed foods, while shipbuilding and petroleum refining are also important. Singapore is a major world port, with extensive dock facilities on the southern coast and many trading partners. Tourism and international banking are important economic sectors. The unit of currency is the Singapore dollar (1.629 Singapore dollars equal U.S.$1; 1992).
Government Singapore’s president, popularly elected to a four-year term, is head of state, and the prime minister is head of government. Legislative power is vested in the Parliament, with 83 members popularly elected.
Back to ListSouth Korea is rugged and mountainous, with plains in the west along the coast. It has cold, dry winters and hot, rainy summers. The southern coast is subject to late summer typhoons with strong winds and heavy rains. The principal mineral resources are coal, iron, and graphite.
Population The population of South Korea is 45,182,000 (1995 estimate), about 78 percent urban, living mostly in the southern and western coastal areas. The population density is among the world's highest. Seoul is one of the world's largest cities. The national language is Korean . Education is free and compulsory, and more than 96 percent of the people can read.
Economy South Korea's economy, traditionally based on agriculture, has undergone extraordinarily rapid industrialization since the early 1960s. A series of five-year economic plans has concentrated on the development of manufacturing. Economic aid from foreign countries has contributed to the country's growth from one of the world's poorest nations to a mid-ranking industrial power. South Korea is also one of the world's leading fishing nations. The unit of currency is the won (806.8 won equal U.S.$1; 1994).
Government Under South Korea's 1988 constitution, executive power is held by a president elected to a single five-year term. The president, with the consent of the legislature, appoints a cabinet headed by the prime minister. Legislative power is held by the National Assembly, with 299 members serving four-year terms.
Back to ListSri Lanka's outstanding topographical feature is a mountainous mass in the south central part of the country. In this upland region are two plateaus, Nuwara Eliya and Horton Plains. North of the mountains, and extending south, is an arid and gently rolling plain known as the dry zone. The west, south, and southeast coasts are indented by palm-fringed lagoons and inlets. The rugged northeastern coast contains Trincomalee Harbor, one of the best natural harbors in the world. Sri Lanka's climate is hot and humid, but the mountains and hills are cool, and humidity is lower in the dry zone. The natural resources are chiefly agricultural, although the land is not easily cultivated. Tropical jungles occupy extensive areas in the southwest, and the mountain slopes are thickly forested. The animal life is diverse and includes many species that may be in danger of extinction.
Population The population (1995 estimate) of Sri Lanka is 18,346,000. Most of the people live in rural areas. About 74 percent of the population is of Sinhalese descent, and the largest minority group is the Tamils (18 percent). Religion plays an important role in Sri Lanka. Most public holidays are based on religious festivals. Sixty-nine percent of the population is Buddhist. Other religions include Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam. The official language is Sinhalese, spoken by more than 70 percent of the population. Tamil is spoken in the northern and eastern provinces, and English is widely used. Education is compulsory from 5 to 15 years of age and free to the university level.
Economy Sri Lanka's economy is based on agriculture. Most people are subsistence farmers, growing rice on small plots. The dominant exports are tea, rubber, and coconuts, which make up nearly 35 percent of Sri Lanka's export earnings and are grown on large, government-owned plantations. In the 1970s the government nationalized most major industries and businesses, but attempts are under way to privatize the economy. Mechanized industry is relatively limited. The Sri Lankan rupee is the monetary unit (50 rupees equal U.S.$1; 1995).
Government Under a 1978 constitution, Sri Lanka's chief executive and head of state is a president elected to a six-year term. The president appoints the prime minister and members of the cabinet and may dismiss parliament at will. A unicameral parliament of 225 members is elected by a system of proportional representation.
Back to ListA forested mountain range extends almost the entire length of Taiwan, with a broad plain on its west and hills to the east. Taiwan has warm, humid summers and mild winters, with heavy rainfall. Tropical and subtropical forests abound. Taiwan has mineral deposits, but its chief resource is farmland.
Population The population of Taiwan is 21,298,930 (1994 estimate), all Chinese except for 2 percent who are aborigines, perhaps related to the people of the Philippines or Indonesia. More than 70 percent live in urban areas. Most of Taiwan's people practice a mixture of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism. About 5 percent are Christian. Taiwan's official language is the Mandarin dialect of Chinese, although other Chinese dialects and aboriginal dialects are used. See Chinese Language. Education in Taiwan is free and compulsory; more than 90 percent of the people can read.
Economy Taiwan is one of Asia's major industrial economies, and manufacturing employs almost 35 percent of the workforce. Noted for producing electrical and electronic equipment, Taiwan also produces cement, crude steel, chemicals, refined petroleum, textiles, and plastic items. Leading imports include crude petroleum, timber, machinery, iron and steel, and foodstuffs. Traditionally a farming region, Taiwan now employs only about 15 percent of its workers in agriculture. Chief agricultural products are rice, sweet potatoes, mushrooms, peanuts, tea, bananas, and sugarcane. Mining yields coal and modest quantities of marble, petroleum, natural gas, salt, and copper. The unit of currency is the new Taiwan dollar (26.42 new Taiwan dollars equal U.S.$1; 1994).
Government Taiwan is the seat of the Republic of China. The chief executive and head of state is the president, before 1996 elected by the National Assembly, now popularly elected to a six-year term. The main lawmaking body is the 164-member Legislative Council. The National Assembly, which votes on constitutional amendments, has 325 members. Taiwan is also a province of the People's Republic of China, with a governor and a provincial assembly.
Back to ListThailand lies within the Indochinese Peninsula, although its southern extremity extends into the Malay Peninsula. Parallel north-south mountain ranges occupy the northern and western portions of the country. Another mountain system projects south through central Thailand, turning east and extending to the frontier. The barren Khorat Plateau lies to the north and east of this system. Between the central and western mountains is the densely populated and agriculturally fertile plain of Thailand’s chief river, the Chao Phraya.
Thailand has a tropical climate. Most rain falls from June through October. Temperatures range from lows of about 13° C (56° F) in the dry season to highs of about 37° C (98° F) in the wet months. Thailand is rich in mineral deposits, including coal, gold, lead, tin, and precious stones. Natural gas deposits were discovered offshore in the 1970s. The country is heavily wooded with a wide variety of tropical plants and trees, including orchid, hibiscus, mango, and coconut. Large animals include the elephant, rhinoceros, tiger, water buffalo, and crocodile.
Population Thailand’s population (1995 estimate) of 58,265,000 is about 75 percent Thai, with Chinese forming the largest minority group (14 percent). Almost all people are Buddhists, and about 75 percent of the population is rural. In addition to Bangkok, important towns include Chiang Mai, Songkhla, and Nakon Si Thammarat. Thai is the chief language. Education in Thailand is free and compulsory between the ages of 7 and 14. The literacy rate is 93 percent, higher than in most other Southeast Asian countries.
Economy Thailand is one of the world’s leading producers of rice, and its cultivation, processing, and export are the traditional mainstays of the economy. The government has, however, instituted programs to diversify commerce. Thailand industrialized rapidly during the 1980s and early 1990s, exporting textiles, electronics, and rubber. Tourism is the chief source of foreign capital. About 28 percent of the land is forested, but a ban was imposed on uncontrolled logging in 1989 after deforestation resulted in severe flooding. Gemstones, particularly diamonds, are the principal mineral export. The basic unit of currency of Thailand is the baht (25.30 baht equal U.S.$1; 1996).
Government Under the constitution of 1991, the king is Thailand’s head of state. A cabinet is headed by a prime minister, who is the chief executive. Legislative power is vested in the National Assembly, which consists of a House of Representatives and a Senate. Members of the House of Representatives are elected to four-year terms. The number of members varies according to population figures. The 245 senators are appointed by the military to four-year terms.
Back to ListVietnam's climate is generally tropical. Abundant vegetation grows throughout the country, and tropical rain forests are inhabited by large mammals such as elephants, deer, and leopards, as well as by many species of reptiles and birds. Vietnam's northern highlands contain valuable minerals, including iron, anthracite coal, phosphate, zinc, chromite, tin, and apatite. Petroleum and natural gas deposits lie offshore.
Population Vietnam's total population is 73,811,000 (1995 estimate). The Vietnamese, related to the southern Chinese, account for about 88 percent of the population. The majority of the population lives in small villages. Large cities include Ho Chi Minh City (formerly Saigon), Haiphong, Ðà Nang, and Hue. Vietnamese is the official language. Of religious believers in Vietnam, a majority follow Buddhism in a variety of sects. Christianity claims 6 million followers in the country, many of them members of the Roman Catholic church.
The Vietnam War (1959-1975) seriously disrupted Vietnam's educational progress and cultural programs. Schooling is free and compulsory, and about 88 percent of the people can read. Vietnamese culture was influenced by both China and France, but the postwar government focused contemporary Vietnamese art and literature programs on more indigenous traditions in an attempt to move away from Western influences.
Economy With the reunification of North Vietnam and South Vietnam in 1976, North Vietnam's centrally planned economy was introduced into the south. In 1986 the country began to move toward a market-based economy, and by the 1990s the nation's economy was expanding.
The leading sector of the Vietnamese economy is agriculture, which, with fishing and forestry, employs a majority of labor. A major exporter of rice, Vietnam also raises cassava, sweet potatoes, sugarcane, coffee, tea, soybeans, and rubber. Forests cover about 40 percent of the country, but the growth of commercial forestry has been hindered by a lack of transportation facilities. Vietnam's coast and rivers include rich fishing sites. Most mining activities are confined to the northwest and offshore areas. Areas holding Vietnam's petroleum and natural gas reserves, however, are also claimed by China.
The major Vietnamese factories, concentrated in the north, include producers of paper, cement, textiles, and food products. Tourism is growing in importance to the nation's economy. The unit of currency is the new dông (11,000 new dông equal U.S.$1; 1994).
Government Under the 1992 constitution the Communist Party has a leading role in Vietnamese government and society. The head of state is the president, and the prime minister runs the government. The legislative National Assembly has a maximum of 400 members, elected to five-year terms.
Back to ListAngola's three major regions are, from west to east, a coastal plain, a series of steep rises, and a vast inland plateau that covers about two-thirds of the country. Angola has a tropical climate, moderated by a cool offshore current. Natural resources are petroleum and diamonds.
Population Angola's population of 11,072,000 (1995 estimate) is about two-thirds rural; about 70 percent of the people live in the north and along the coast. The official language is Portuguese, although more than 90 percent of the population speaks Bantu languages. Education is free and compulsory. Fewer than half the people can read. Most of Angola's people are Christians; many also practice traditional African religions.
Economy About 70 percent of Angola's workers are engaged in agriculture. The leading subsistence crop is cassava, and coffee is the major export crop. Petroleum accounts for about 90 percent of national exports by value. The unit of currency is the new kwanza (900,000 new kwanza equal U.S.$1; 1995).
Government Under the 1975 constitution Angola was a single-party republic governed by the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola-Labor Party (MPLA). Legislative powers were officially exercised by the National People's Assembly, but the MPLA was the government's major policymaking body, and its chairman served as president of the republic. In 1991 the MPLA and rebel guerrillas agreed to hold multiparty elections for president and for a new 220-seat parliament. The rebels rejected the results of this 1992 election. In 1996 the two sides agreed to create a unified government.
Back to ListEgypt's inhabited land, less than one-tenth of the country, is in the Nile River Valley and delta, desert oases, and along the Suez Canal. The rest of Egypt is desert, including the Libyan Desert in the west, the Arabian Desert in the east, and the Nubian Desert in the south. The Libyan Desert includes the lowest point in Africa, the Qattara Depression, 133 m (436 ft) below sea level. The Arabian Desert is between the Nile Valley and the Red Sea coastal mountains, and the Nubian Desert is along Egypt's southern border. Desert in the north and mountains in the south make up the Sinai Peninsula in the northeast. The Nile flows north, through a narrow cliff-lined valley, from Sudan to the Mediterranean Sea. Connecting the Gulf of Suez and the Mediterranean, the Suez Canal runs through the Isthmus of Suez, which joins the Sinai Peninsula and Africa. Egypt's chief mineral resource is petroleum, found in the Red Sea coastal region and in the Sinai Peninsula.
Egypt has a hot season from May to September and a cool season from November to March. The least dry area is along the Mediterranean coast. Rainfall decreases rapidly to the south, and in many desert locations it may rain only once in several years.
Population Egypt's population is 58,519,000 (1995 estimate), nearly half of which is urban. Almost 99 percent live within the Nile Valley and delta. With less than 4 percent of Egypt's total area, it is among the world's most densely populated regions.
Islam is the official religion, practiced by about 90 percent of all Egyptians. Arabic is the official language, and French and English are common second languages among the educated. Education is free and compulsory, but only about half the people can read. Al Azhar University at Cairo, founded in AD 970, is the world's oldest continually existing institution of higher learning.
Cradle of a great ancient civilization, Egypt continues to have a rich and active cultural life. Egyptian novelist Naguib Mahfouz won the 1988 Nobel Prize for literature, the first Arabic writer to do so. For information on Egyptian cultural life, see Egyptian Art and Architecture; Egyptian Literature; Arabic Literature.
Economy Much of Egypt's economy is socialized, including the trading, financial, and manufacturing sectors. Private business, including agriculture, urban real estate, and some manufacturing concerns, is closely regulated.
Egypt is predominantly an agricultural country, one of the world's leading producers of long-staple (long-fibered) cotton. Starting in the early 1950s, the government sponsored industrial expansion. By the early 1990s, manufacturing and mining had grown tremendously. The basic unit of currency is the Egyptian pound (3.40 Egyptian pounds equal U.S.$1; 1996).
Government Under Egypt's 1971 constitution, the head of state is the president, elected to a six-year term. Legislative authority is held by the 444-member People's Assembly, elected for five-year terms; half of the members are always from the worker and farmer groups, and some members must also be women.
Back to ListMore than half the country consists of a high plateau that is capped with mountains, the highest of which is Ras Dashan (4620 m/15,157 ft). Rivers and deep valleys cut through the plateau, which is split from northeast to southwest by the Great Rift Valley. On its northeastern edge, the plateau drops precipitously to the coastal plain and the Denakil Desert, but it descends less abruptly in the west and southwest. The climate varies according to elevation. Generally, the higher elevations are cooler and wetter than the lowlands. The principal rainy season occurs between mid-June and September. Vegetation also varies according to elevation. The lowlands are sparsely vegetated; the plateau is mostly subtropical grassland; and the temperate mountains sustain African alpine vegetation. The larger species of African wildlife— such as giraffes, lions, and elephants— are native to most parts of the country. Jackals, hyenas, and monkeys are also common.
Population Ethiopia has a population (1995 estimate) of about 58,039,000. About 80 percent of the people live on the heavily populated plateau and engage in subsistence agriculture. The country's diverse ethnic groups include many indigenous and immigrant populations. Larger tribes include the Amhara, Tigreans, and Oromo. In addition to Addis Ababa, major cities include Dirê Dawa, Gonder, and Nazret. About 45 percent of the people are Muslims, and 40 percent are Christians. Muslims make up a majority in the south, and Christians predominate in the north. Many people in the south also practice traditional religions. About 70 languages are spoken, but more than half the population speaks Amharic, which is used by the government. Education is free through the college level, but the country has few regular school facilities.
Economy In the early 1990s Ethiopia was one of the world's poorest nations. Life expectancy was low, infant mortality high, and famine a constant threat. Trade takes place mainly by barter in local markets. The economy depends on subsistence agriculture, and periodic droughts necessitate food imports. Coffee remains Ethiopia's most important commodity, and coffee production employs about one-fourth of the population. The unit of currency is the Ethiopian birr (5.00 Ethiopian birr equal U.S.$1; official rate since 1992). Rail links and highways serve Addis Ababa, but the rugged terrain makes many areas inaccessible by road and air transport is important.
Government Under the 1994 constitution, the head of state is a president appointed by the Council of People's Representatives to no more than two six-year terms. The council, which consists of up to 550 elected members, selects a prime minister as chief executive. After the 1991 overthrow of the Marxist government, the armed forces were disbanded and military equipment was divided between two allied rebel armies: the Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Democratic Front (EPRDF) and the Eritrean People's Liberation Front (EPLF).
Back to ListIran is dominated by a central plateau that is ringed by mountain chains. In the north, along the southern shore of the Caspian Sea, are the Elburz Mountains, which include Iran's highest peak, Mount Damâvand (5604 m/18,386 ft). Along the western border, the Zagros Mountains extend southeast toward the Persian Gulf. Smaller mountains lie to the east of the central plateau. Two great deserts, the Dasht-e Lút and the Dasht-e Kavìr, extend over central Iran.
Iran is divided climatically into three main regions: the hot southern coast; the temperate, arid central highland; and the cold, northern tableland of the Elburz Mountains. Throughout the country precipitation is sparse and most rivers flow only during heavy rains. Soil is poor except along the Caspian Sea, where vegetation is abundant. Iranian wildlife includes the leopard, deer, bear, and tiger. Pheasants and partridges are found inland; pelicans and flamingos breed along the Persian Gulf. Iran's most valuable resources are its great deposits of petroleum and natural gas.
Population, Cultural Activity, and Education Iran's population of 66,720,000 (1995 estimate) is mostly concentrated in the north and west. Sixty percent live in urban areas such as Tehrân, Mashhad, and ESfahân. More than one-half of the people are Persians, and the largest minority group consists of the Azeris (24 percent). The official language is Farsi. More than 95 percent of the population follows the Shiite branch of Islam, which is the official religion of Iran.
Following the revolution of 1979, education and cultural life were altered to conform with Shiite Islamic beliefs, including the return of women to traditional roles, the segregation of men and women at social functions, and the closing of movie theaters. Education is compulsory for children between the ages of six and ten.
Economy More than 90 percent of Iran's export earnings come from the nation's oil fields, considered among the world's richest. Agriculture is also important, and the principal cash crop is fresh and dried fruit, which accounts for 30 percent of non-petroleum export earnings. Commercial fishing in the Persian Gulf and Caspian Sea yields carp, herring, and tuna. Iranian caviar (sturgeon eggs) is considered among the best in the world. Manufacturing products include textiles, processed food, and construction materials. The Iranian unit of currency is the rial (3000 rials equal U.S.$1; 1996).
Government In 1979 a new constitution established an Islamic republic overseen by a religious leader, called the wali faqih. The chief executive and head of state is a president, elected to a four-year term. The president appoints a prime minister responsible to a unicameral parliament called the Majlis. Its 270 members, elected for terms of four years, can dismiss the country's president by a no-confidence vote. Laws enacted by the Majlis must be approved by the Council of Guardians, which ensures accordance with Islamic code and the constitution.
Back to ListIsrael can be divided into five topographical regions: the hills of Galilee in the north of Israel; the Plain of Esdraelon, south of Galilee, a densely populated and productive agricultural region; the coastal plains, consisting of the plains of Zevulun, Sharon, and Judea; the Judean Hills and the Samarian Hills, forming a barrier from north to south throughout most of the country; and the Negev, a desert region in southern Israel. Israel's chief river is the Jordan.
The climate of Israel is generally subtropical. The water supply is limited, leaving much of the country barren, with poor soil quality, but there are mineral and agricultural resources. Bromine and potash are available in the waters of the Dead Sea, peat and iron ore are found in Galilee, and rich alluvial soils do exist along the coastal plain.
Israel has about 2500 species of plants. Dwarf oak and various other deciduous and coniferous trees have increased in number in recent decades, and natural woodlands and reforested areas cover about 6 percent of the land. The animal life of Israel is diverse and includes about 100 species of mammals and about 400 species of birds.
Population The population of Israel is overwhelmingly urban and about 82 percent Jewish, most of the non-Jewish population being Muslim Arabs. Because of the complex history of the region (see History section), considerable racial, cultural, and ethnic diversity exists. The population of Israel (1995 estimate) is about 5,884,000. Besides Jerusalem, other major cities include Tel Aviv-Yafo, Haifa, Holon, and Ramat Gan. Hebrew and Arabic are the country's official languages.
Education is free and compulsory for all children between 5 and 16 years of age. A system of Jewish religious schools exists parallel to the secular system. Institutions of higher education include the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and Tel Aviv University. Israeli culture reflects the diverse backgrounds of its people, and vigorous traditions of literature, folk song, and folk dance thrive.
Economy Living standards are generally high in Israel. Much of the country's expenditures are devoted to the military and to absorbing immigrants. Israeli agriculture provides for most of the nation's food needs. Principal crops include fruits, vegetables, and grains. Livestock include cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, and poultry.
Relying on scientific research and advanced technology, including land reclamation and critical irrigation, Israeli farming settlements are organized into both communal and individual enterprises. Chief assets of the Israeli mining industry include the potash and bromide extracted from the salt deposits of the Dead Sea. Israel is the world's largest exporter of these two resources.
Israel's principal industrial products are processed food, beverages, and tobacco; electrical machinery; chemical, petroleum, and coal products; metal products; textiles and clothing; construction materials; and precision instruments. The unit of currency is the new shekel (3.20 new shekels equal U.S.$1; 1996). A great deal of foreign exchange is derived from expenditures by tourists and the donations of Jews living in other countries.
Government
Israel is a parliamentary republic with supreme authority vested in the legislature. The nation has no constitution, but a number of laws passed by the legislature regulate how the government operates. Israel's head of state, the president, serves mostly ceremonial functions and is elected by the legislature. The country's chief executive is the prime minister, elected by popular vote. The Israeli legislature, or Knesset, is a unicameral body elected under a system of proportional representation. Two major political alignments were dominant in the mid-1990s, the conservative Likud and the social-democratic Israel Labor Party.
Israel has both a civil and a religious court system. The highest civil court is a supreme court, which is supported by several levels of lower courts. Jewish, Muslim, and Christian communities also have their own religious courts.
Back to ListTropical forests border the coast, and the country's central grassland rises to mountains in the west. A tropical climate prevails on the coast, while interior temperatures vary markedly with season and time of day. The main natural resources are fertile soil and valuable timber.
Population The population of Côte d'Ivoire is 14,401,000 (1995 estimate), comprising more than 60 ethnic groups. French is the official language, although numerous African languages are also spoken. About three-fifths of the people hold traditional religious beliefs, with Roman Catholics and Muslims each forming about one-fifth.
Economy The economy and workforce are primarily agricultural, and the country is a leading cacao and coffee producer. Timber production, oil production, and diamond mining are important economic sectors. The unit of currency is the CFA franc (284.6 CFA francs equal U.S.$1; 1993).
Government Executive authority is held by a president, assisted by a council of ministers chosen by the president. The president and the 175 members of the National Assembly are elected for five-year terms.
Back to ListVirtually the entire country is barren desert, with a flat to rolling terrain. The country obtains its water supply from the desalination of seawater. Petroleum and natural gas are Kuwait's only natural resources.
Population The native people of Kuwait are Arabs, although many minority groups are present as workers. Islam is the predominant religion. The official language is Arabic, but English is widely spoken. Education is free.
Economy The economy is almost entirely dependent on petroleum production. The unit of currency is the Kuwaiti dinar (0.2970 dinar equals U.S.$1; 1994).
Government Kuwait's government is headed by a hereditary emir (prince), whose power is exercised through a prime minister and council of ministers. Legislative power is officially held by an assembly of 50 members elected to four-year terms by literate native-born men.
Back to ListLebanon's landscape is dominated by a fertile coastal plain and by two mountain ranges separated by the Bekáa Valley. The climate is Mediterranean, with mild winters, hot summers, and moderate rainfall. Arable land, covering about 29 percent of the country, is the main natural resource. Once famous for its stands of cedar, Lebanon has been largely deforested— the upper mountains are rocky and barren, and erosion is common.
Population Lebanon's population is about 3,552,369 (1993 estimate). Most of the people are of Semitic descent. Other groups include Armenians and Palestinian Arabs. The principal religion is Islam; Shiites predominate, and Druze account for about 7 percent of the population. Christians make up about 25 percent of the population. Arabic is the official language. Primary education is free but not compulsory.
Economy Historically, Lebanon has served as a financial center, with an economy dominated by banking, international commerce, and tourism. However, recent civil strife and war with Israel have destroyed much of the business infrastructure. Oil refining is Lebanon's major heavy industry. Agriculture is also important, and a variety of crops are grown, mostly along the coastal plain and in the Bekáa Valley. The unit of currency is the Lebanese pound (1580 pounds equal U.S.$1; 1996).
Government The government is headed by a Maronite Christian president, a Sunni Muslim prime minister, and a Shiite speaker of the unicameral National Assembly. The constitution mandates that the holders of these offices be of these specific religions. Similarly, the 128 assembly seats are divided equally between Christians and Muslims.
Back to ListLibya is one of Africa's largest countries, but about 90 percent of it is barren plains and desert, with two small areas of hills in the northwest and northeast. The climate in Libya is extremely hot and dry, and little vegetation grows there. Wildlife includes desert rodents, hyena, gazelle, and predatory birds. The main natural resource is petroleum.
Population The population of Libya is 5,407,000 (1995 estimate), mostly of Berber and Arab origin. More than two-thirds of the people live in the coastal areas, and more than 85 percent are urban. Islam is the state religion. The official language is Arabic. Education is free and compulsory, and nearly two-thirds of the people can read.
Economy Libya was traditionally an agricultural country, but the discovery of petroleum in the late 1950s profoundly changed the economy. Petroleum accounts for almost all of Libya's export trade. Major manufacturing facilities developed in support of the petroleum industry. Farms continue to cultivate livestock, grains, and fruits in small areas of Libya, but the country must import the bulk of its food. The unit of currency is the Libyan dinar (0.354 dinar equals U.S.$1; 1994).
Government Under the 1977 constitution, power is held by the head of state, or revolutionary leader; by the five members of the General Secretariat of the General People's Congress, a national legislature; and by the 16 members of the General People's Committee.
Back to ListMali has mostly low plains broken occasionally by rocky hills and, in the south, two mountain ranges separated by sandy lowlands. The Sahara Desert occupies the parched northern third of the country. The Niger River, which flows through the southern third, is Mali's most valuable resource. The climate is generally hot and dry.
Population The population is 10,797,000 (1995 estimate) and mostly African. Nomadic Berbers roam the desert edges. French is the official language, but African languages are widely spoken. Only 15 percent of Malian children attend schools. Islam is the religion of 80 percent of the people, and the others mostly hold to traditional local beliefs.
Economy Mali is one of the world's poorest countries. The economy and the workforce are predominantly agricultural; crops depend almost entirely on irrigation or flooding from the Niger River and its tributaries. Livestock raising is of major economic importance, with fishing also a significant activity. The unit of currency is the CFA franc (295.2 francs equal U.S.$1; 1993).
Government Under the 1992 constitution, the president, elected to a five-year term, appoints the prime minister, who selects the other members of the council of ministers. The National Assembly consists of 129 deputies elected to five-year terms.
Back to ListMorocco is divided by the Atlas Mountains into the heavily populated Atlantic coastal plain and the plains that slope southeastward to the Sahara. The Er Rif highlands flank the Mediterranean coast. The highest mountain is Jebel Toubkal (4165 m/13,665 ft) in the Grand Atlas range.
The climate of Morocco varies, ranging from subtropical along the Mediterranean coast to cold, high-altitude conditions in the Atlas Mountains. Temperatures vary correspondingly, from an average January reading of 16.4° C (61.5° F) at coastal Essaouira (Mogador) to 10° C (50° F) at Fês, which is more inland. Rainfall is heaviest in winter and falls mostly along the northwest plain, where it averages 955 mm (about 37.5 in) per year.
Population Morocco has a population of about 20,224,349 (1982 census). The people are primarily Berbers (about 75 percent), Arabs, black Africans, French Europeans, and indigenous Jews. The coastal city of Rabat is Morocco's capital; the country's largest city and main seaport is Casablanca. Other urban centers are Marrakech and Fês (both inland) and the seaport of Tangier.
Islam is the state religion of Morocco, and most inhabitants speak Arabic; Berber, French, and Spanish are also spoken. Elementary schooling is compulsory, and the literacy rate is about 50 percent.
Economy Morocco's economy is primarily agricultural; farming employs about half of the workforce. Cereals, field crops, sugar, and livestock are the major products. Forestry, such as cork production, and fishing are also important. The major mining product is phosphate rock. Manufacturing is mostly small-scale, with major products including carpets, cement, and phosphoric acid. Tourism is an important industry. Morocco's unit of currency is the dirham (9.651 dirhams equal U.S.$1; 1993).
Government Morocco is a hereditary monarchy, governed under a constitution. The king is the head of state. There is a unicameral legislature, most of whose members are chosen by direct universal suffrage. Morocco has a multiparty political system. The country's 35 provinces are administered by governors who are appointed by the king.
Back to ListNigeria can be divided into four distinct geographical regions from west to east: a swampy, wooded coastal region; a broad, hilly, forested belt that gradually rises to the Jos and Bauchi plateaus; a region of savanna, which stretches to a semidesert zone in the extreme north; and the eastern Adamawa Plateau, which borders Cameroon.
Nigeria has two climate zones. The coast is characterized by high humidity and heavy rainfall. To the north, the tropical continental air mass brings dry, dusty winds from the Sahara. The temperature varies considerably with the season, as does rainfall. Vegetation zones parallel the climate zones. The south has dense tropical jungles; in the northeast semidesert vegetation prevails. Grasslands cover the plateau and savanna regions. Nigeria has massive petroleum and natural gas reserves, as well as significant deposits of iron ore, salt, tin, columbite, and coal.
Population With more than 250 ethnic groups, Nigeria is a complex linguistic, social, and cultural mosaic. Nearly three-quarters of the population consists of the Hausa and Fulani peoples of the north, the Yoruba of the southwest, and the Ibo of the southeast.
Although Nigeria is recognized as the most populous country in Africa, its exact population has been a matter of great political controversy within the country. Estimates by the United Nations (UN), the World Bank, and the Nigerian government in the late 1980s ranged well above 100 million, but results of the 1991 census showed a total of 88,514,501. The 1995 UN estimated population is 126,929,000.
English is the official language of Nigeria, but the most widely spoken language is Hausa. About 48 percent of the people are Muslims, and about 34 percent are Christians. Traditional religions are practiced by the remainder of the population. In 1976 free primary education was established throughout Nigeria.
Economy Nigeria traditionally has been an agricultural country, and most Nigerians are subsistence farmers, producing sorghum, millet, and cattle in the north, and maize (corn), rice, and yams in the south. However, Nigeria is one of the world's leading producers of crude petroleum, which accounts for nearly all of the country's exports. But dependence on oil income has also placed stress on Nigeria's economy. In the 1980s, for example, oil prices dropped and Nigeria accumulated substantial foreign debt.
Attempts to reduce the foreign debt have produced mixed results. After steps taken in the early 1990s resulted in public protests, a new military administration announced the abandonment of market reforms. The national currency of Nigeria is the naira (22 naira equal U.S.$1; 1994).
Government Nigeria's political life since independence in 1960 has been dominated by rivalry and suspicion between the more traditional north, with its Muslim, Hausa, and Fulani influences, and the more modern, Westernized south, led by Yoruba and Ibo politicians. After three decades of political turmoil, including the drafting and cancellation of a more recent constitution, Nigeria is theoretically governed under a 1978 constitution. The elected president is both head of state and head of government. However, since a 1993 coup, executive powers have been held by the head of the military government, General Sani Abacha. Elections were last held in 1992 for the National Assembly, but the assembly was dissolved following the coup. State governments were also dissolved and were replaced in 1994 by nonelected caretaker committees.
Back to ListThe interior of Oman is desert. Mountains in the north reach more than 3000 m (more than 9843 ft) high and surround the arable northern coastal plain. The climate is generally hot and arid. The average annual temperature is about 28.3° C (about 83° F), and average annual rainfall is generally less than 102 mm (less than 4 in). The principal natural resource is petroleum.
Population The population is about 1,822,000 (1995 estimate). Most Omanis are Arabs. Significant minorities include Indians, Pakistanis, and East Africans. Islam is the main religion; the Ibadhi sect predominates. Arabic is the official language.
Economy and Government The agriculture of Oman is dominated by export crops such as dates and limes, and most food must be imported. Petroleum and natural gas industries are also important. In the early 1990s petroleum production totaled about 283 million barrels annually. The output of natural gas was 2.7 billion cu m (95 billion cu ft). The unit of currency is the rial Omani (2.6 rials equal U.S.$1; 1993)
.A sultan and his cabinet rule Oman. The country has no constitution, legislature, or political parties. The judicial system is based on the laws of Islam.
Back to ListSouth Africa's topography consists primarily of a great plateau region ranging in elevation from 600 to 1800 m (about 2000 to 6000 ft). The Great Escarpment separates the higher plateaus from the plains of the coastal areas and includes Champagne Castle (3375 m/11,072 ft), the highest elevation in the country. South Africa also includes a part of the Kalahari Desert in the northwest and a section of the Namib Desert in the west. The chief rivers are the Orange, Vaal, and Limpopo.
South Africa generally has a mild, temperate climate, with a season of heavier rainfall between October and April. In the plateau region, yearly precipitation ranges from 380 to 890 mm (about 15 to 35 in), the amount diminishing rapidly toward the west coast, although the extreme southwest receives about 560 mm (about 22 in) per year. Snow is rare, but winter frosts occur in the higher areas of the plateau. South Africa's vegetation varies greatly from region to region. Rain forests occur in the areas of heavy rain, while most of the plateaus are covered with grassland, often completely treeless or having only scattered trees.
Indigenous large mammals include lions, elephants, zebras, leopards, monkeys, hippopotamuses, and antelope. South Africa's many mineral resources include gold, coal, diamonds, and uranium.
Population South Africa's multiracial, multiethnic population is about 42,741,000 (1995 estimate). About 51 percent is classified as urban. Black Africans constitute 76.1 percent of the population, the rest being white, Coloured (a demographic term in South Africa denoting those of mixed racial origin), or Asian. The black Africans belong to nine ethnic groups: Zulu, Xhosa, Pedi, Sotho, Tswana, Tsonga, Swazi, Ndebele, and Venda. Three-fifths of the white population is made up of people of Dutch ancestry who are known as Afrikaners or Boers.
From 1948 until the early 1990s the government of South Africa practiced a policy of strict racial segregation known as apartheid, designed to guarantee political and social domination by the country's white minority over the nonwhite population. Despite the dismantling of the legal basis of apartheid, inequality remains a basic fact in many aspects of South African life.
South Africa is divided into nine provinces: Gauteng, Northern Province, Mpumalanga, North-West Province, Free State, KwaZulu-Natal, Eastern Cape, Northern Cape, and Western Cape. The largest cities include Cape Town, Durban, Johannesburg, Pretoria, Port Elizabeth, Germiston, and Bloemfontein. Although not a city, Soweto (an acronym for South-Western Townships) is one of the largest communities in South Africa.
Nearly four-fifths of South Africans are Christian, mainly Protestant. So-called independent churches combine elements of Christianity and traditional African religions. Many blacks also follow traditional beliefs. South Africa has 11 official languages: Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Sesotho sa Leboa, Sesotho, siSwati, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa, and Zulu.
South Africa's income gap between blacks and whites, one of the legacies of the apartheid era, is one of the widest in the world and manifests itself in all sectors of life. For example, more than half of all blacks live below the poverty line, and black unemployment hovers around 45 percent, while the average household income for whites is 12 times greater than for blacks. Life expectancy is 73 years for whites and 57 years for blacks. Infant mortality is 13 per 1000 live births for whites, and 57 per 1000 for blacks. Violence— criminal and political— is the most serious social problem in South Africa, much of it resulting from inequities brought about by apartheid.
Education and Culture The status of education in South Africa also demonstrates the legacy of apartheid. At the end of the apartheid era, expenditures for white pupils were about four times higher than those for black pupils. Additionally, institutions of higher education throughout the country were segregated by race during apartheid, although this is slowly changing in the post-apartheid era. The literacy rate remains twice as high for whites. The historical segregation of racial and ethnic groups in South Africa has resulted in distinct cultural developments. Urban black culture is multiethnic and draws on international influences, such as those of African Americans. In rural areas black cultural activities tend to emphasize the traditions of particular ethnic groups. Traditional Afrikaner culture is also strongest in rural areas.
South Africa's complex history has meant that three main literary traditions have developed: in English, Bantu languages, and Afrikaans. Much of the country's writing deals with South Africa's political and cultural problems.
Economy South Africa is a modern industrial country, but it also exhibits many of the signs of a developing economy, such as a great disparity in the distribution of wealth. Until the mid-20th century, its economy hinged on mineral and agricultural products. Then a broad-based manufacturing sector developed. However, high unemployment and lack of job skills are persistent problems. Because of limited rainfall and infertile soil, most farmland is devoted to raising livestock. Nonetheless, the country produces almost all the crops needed for food, including sugarcane, grapes, maize (corn), potatoes, wheat, apples, and oranges. Timber production includes pine, eucalyptus, and wattle. Coastal fishing, for both domestic and foreign markets, is also an important industry.
South Africa is the world's leading producer of gold, and the fifth-largest producer of diamonds. Its other important minerals are coal, iron ore, copper, manganese ore, lime and limestone, and chromium ore. By the early 1990s manufacturing contributed significantly to the economy. Leading manufactures of South Africa include chemical products, petroleum and coal products, processed food and beverages, transportation equipment, iron and steel, metal products, machinery, paper, and textiles. The rand is South Africa's basic unit of currency (4.32 rand equal U.S.$1; 1996).
Government In 1996 a new South African constitution was signed into law. It began to go into effect in early 1997 and will continue to be implemented in stages, ending in 1999. The constitution provides for one of the world's most comprehensive bills of rights, prohibiting discrimination based on race, gender, pregnancy, marital status, ethnic or social origin, color, sexual orientation, age, disability, religion, conscience, belief, culture, language, or birth.
South Africa's president is elected by the majority party in Parliament, and, under the new constitution, the president selects a deputy president. Under the new constitution, the National Assembly and what was the Senate will still make up the Parliament, but the current Senate will become the National Council of Provinces, with 60 permanent members. The National Assembly will have between 350 and 400 members. South Africa's highest courts are the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court (the highest criminal court) and the Constitutional Court. There are nine provincial assemblies, each headed by a premier. The major political parties of South Africa are the African National Congress (ANC), the National Party, the Inkatha Freedom Party, the Pan-Africanist Congress, the South African Communist Party, the Conservative Party, and the Democratic Party.
Back to ListSaudi Arabia is mostly desert, although a major mountain range extends northwest to southeast along the western edge of the country. Extreme heat and aridity are characteristic, with summer temperatures commonly 48° C (120° F) or above. Precipitation is minimal; there are no significant permanent rivers or lakes.
The land only supports agriculture in a scattering of fertile oases. Livestock is pastured on tracts in the north. Large oil fields are located in the coastal area adjoining the Persian Gulf.
Population Saudi Arabia has a population (1995 estimate) of 17,608,000. Most people are indigenous Arabs. A substantial minority is made up of non-Saudi Arabs and other nonresident workers, primarily from Asia and Africa. The national language is Arabic. Virtually all Saudis are Muslims, mostly of the Sunni sect.
Economy and Government Petroleum development dominates Saudi Arabia's economic activity. It is the world's leading oil exporter, with proven reserves exceeding 260 billion barrels— more than one-quarter of the world supply. Considerable quantities of natural gas are also produced. Other industrial products include plastics, processed food, clothing, fertilizer, and cement. Leading agricultural products are wheat, much of which is exported; dates; tomatoes; watermelons; and livestock, including sheep, goats, camels, and cattle. Saudi Arabia's unit of currency is the riyal (3.75 riyals equal U.S.$1; 1996).
The government is based on the Sharia, or Islamic law. The chief government and religious official of Saudi Arabia is a king. A 60-member consultative council is appointed by the king but has no legislative powers.
Back to ListSudan is divided into three natural regions: northern desert, central steppes and low mountains, and southern swamps and rain forest. The White Nile enters Sudan from Uganda in the south and the Blue Nile from Ethiopia in the east. The two meet near Khartoum, forming the Nile proper, which flows north into Egypt. To the west of the Nile lies the Libyan Desert. The Nubian Desert and the Red Sea Hills, located along the coast, lie to the east. Sudan's primary natural resources are water and fertile soil. Most cultivable land is in the river valleys, where ebony and mahogany trees are common. In desert zones, vegetation is sparse, and rainfall is negligible. Elephants, crocodiles, and hippopotamuses are numerous. Other large animals include giraffes, leopards, and lions.
Population Sudan has a population of 28,960,000 (1995 estimate), composed principally of Arabs in the north and black Africans in the south. About 70 percent of the people are Muslim, while some 25 percent follow traditional religions. The official language is Arabic; English is widely spoken, however, and African languages are used in the south. Education is free but not compulsory.
Economy Agriculture dominates Sudan's economy. About two-thirds of the population makes their living by crop farming or grazing. Cotton is the leading cash crop, and acacia trees provide about four-fifths of the world's gum arabic, an ingredient used in candy, processed food, and pharmaceuticals. Economic growth virtually stopped between the mid-1960s and the early 1990s because of drought and civil war. The unit of currency is the dinar (30.99 dinars equal U.S.$1; 1994).
Government After a 1989 military coup, a 15-member Revolutionary Command Council assumed power. In 1993 the council named military leader General Omar Hassan al-Bashir president of a new civilian government. The Transitional National Assembly serves as the legislature. Sudan's judicial system has a civil branch handling most cases and an Islamic branch handling personal and family matters.
Back to ListYemen is located on the southwestern corner of the Arabian Peninsula. Mountains on a high plateau predominate in the west and south, descending north and east into a desert interior. On the western coast, the mountains drop to a low, flat desert plain. The Yemeni highlands have a generally dry but temperate climate. The coastal desert is hot and humid. The north has greater rainfall and more intensive and extensive agriculture.
Population Yemen has a population of 13,897,000 (1995 estimate). Most of the people are ethnic Arabs. Although the country's social system has traditionally been marked by castelike groups at the top and bottom, this structure is breaking down as new economic opportunities become available and new social ideas are accepted. The population of southern Yemen is concentrated predominantly in the city of Aden. Northern Yemen has a far larger population, but it is more scattered. Nearly all Yemenis speak Arabic. The indigenous population of Yemen is almost entirely Muslim, although there is some tension between Shiite Muslims and Sunni Muslims.
Economy and Government Yemen has a primarily agricultural economy; farming and livestock raising are the chief livelihoods for most of the population. Crops include grain, fruits and vegetables, coffee, and the domestically valuable qat, a privetlike plant with mildly narcotic leaves. Fishing is also important to the economy; catches include tuna, mackerel, cod, and lobster. Petroleum refining accounts for a large share of the country's industrial output. Besides major oil resources, Yemen also has natural gas fields. Yemen's unit of currency is the riyal (56.6 riyals equal U.S.$1, 1995 official rate; 150 riyals equal U.S.$1, 1995 free-market rate).
A 1994 amended constitution declares Islamic Sharia (basic law) as the basis of all legislation and describes the economy as market-based. It also stipulates that the presidency be decided by universal suffrage. There is an elected legislature.
Back to ListThe Pannonian Plains, a fertile agricultural region drained by the Drava and Sava rivers, lie in eastern Croatia. In the west, along the Adriatic Sea, is Dalmatia, a narrow strip of land within the Dinaric Alps. A climate of hot summers and cold winters predominates, although coastal towns enjoy a Mediterranean climate of mild, rainy winters and warm, dry summers. Natural resources include petroleum, coal, bauxite, iron ore, calcium, silica, mica, and salt. Deciduous forests predominate on the plains and in many of the mountainous areas. The Karst, a b